OBJECTIVES
At the end of this chapter, you will be able to:
- appreciate the purpose and importance of design;
- list the steps involved in product development;
- understand the need for feedback and constructive criticism;
- define research & development and types of research;
- explain R & D registration procedure.
DESIGN
"What a tangled web we weave
when we first practice to deceive."
William Shakespeare wrote these words 400 years ago. They mean simply these even to deceive well, it takes a lot of practice; the first time we attempt it, we get caught in a complicated network of lies and half-truths.
This is true of any activity. It is important to practice, develop and improve anything that ew do.. But equally important is to have a basic plan, i.e., a design of what we want to do.
In any manufacturing activity there is a need for design whether the product under manufacture is ball bearing or automobiles. Indians, as individuals, have always been very good designers, but not in India.. We do not do much of original design in India. Most of our products are made in collaboration with some foreign company which provides the technology. This is very unfortunate because, profitability in design is much more than in manufacturing or trading.
Design Considerations
a. Functionality
Fist the purpose of the item manufactures has to be identified. A knife has to cut and a fan has to rotate. This is called functionality and is of prime importance in design. Let us consider a knife. A knife needs a sharp edge of adequate length, to cut. The design of a product therefore, has to take all such factors into account.
b. Other factors
It is obvious that functionality plays an important part in design. And a sharp knife cannot be held without a handle. The handle becomes an essential part of its design.
Two aspects figure here: convenience and safety.
Finally, when the knife goes out into the market, it has to look attractive. Hence, it is given the right shape and the handle is given a nice coat of paint to prevent rusting, etc.
Here, the factors that come into play are aesthetics, longevity or durability and strength.
Similarly, can you figure out the aspects to be considered in designing a table fan? A bungalow?
Now while designing a knife, we have taken into consideration, a number of factors.
We realize that proper materials have to be chosen. While glass may cut, it obviously cannot be a knife blade because it will break. A suitable metal has to be chosen - naturally gold, platinum and silver are ruled out in view of their high cost. Aluminum and brass too are not considered for reasons of material unsuitability. Modern knives are usually made of stainless steel. The benefits of the particular material should justify the cost. So, the factors that govern the choice of material are:
i. its properties (vis-a-vis the function),
ii. its cost,
iii. its strength and durability,
iv. its aesthetics.
Once the materials are chosen, new drawing(s) are made to form the basis of design.
Design is not a routine activity. It involves creativity. The same product designed by two designers may not have the same look, same material, same characteristics and same price.
Design Standards
Design has to take into account, standards and inputs prescribed for the product under design. It has to meet quality requirements of the customers, (for products specifically developed against large orders) or industry standards (like BIS/ISI, JIS, etc., where dimensions, weight, material and tolerance are set down to a narrow range of acceptable limits).
Design Outputs
One of the outputs of design is making drawings of the product to scale. In the process, we may need to do numerous computation, using either a calculator or a computer. These drawings are very accurate models of the final product with all its dimensions. Over the years, these have been done manually by draughtsman on drawing boards. In fact, it is a common piece of advice in most walks of life when things go wrong: Go back to the drawing board.
Computer Aided Design and Drawing is a modern technology that has aided advancement in design. Today CAD packages i.e., software programs like Autocad) are available on desktop computers which make for high-precision design and drawings. The parameters of product design are fed into the computer and the resultant drawings and specification can be perfected to the satisfaction of the most demanding manufacturer in a very short time. Speed of design is today a very important consideration as manufacturers compete to bring out newer, better products ahead of one another.
With CAD, changes can be made with great ease. Several alternative designs could be studied before choosing one. Plotters are available as part of CAD systems which can produce accurate drawings. By the use of graphics, CAD systems greatly aid product development. Similarly, CAM (Computer Aided Manufacturing) systems are used in the manufacturing process which takes manufacturing instructions prepared by the computer for the Numerically Controlled (NC) Automatic machines and manufactures without human intervention.
Once the initial design is finalized, it is release for production. The documents released will be drawings and detailed specifications of materials, components and sub assemblies. The designer will preserve the back-up calculations, computer outputs, etc., for future verification.
Design Feedback, Review and Amendments
The design is reviewed periodically based on consumer and internal feedbacks and changes in design to meet these are made. For this, a design amendment note is sent by the Design department to the appropriate authority in Operations. Now we are ready for the final design. Once the final design is ready, sometimes, a prototype of the product is made usually through a shop attached to design or through an external production shop. This is a life-size model of the product which is critically analyzed by the Production department from all angles, including convenience of production, and a further feedback is given to the Design department. Changes needed are again incorporated on the basis of the correction slip received. At this stage, the product design is ready for the final release to Operations/Production.
Design support is continually available by means of periodic updates, for product improvement is an ongoing process.
Working Conditions for Design
Design and Development are crucial aspects of the pre-manufacturing process. The Design department should be able to function in comfortable working conditions. Usually the constraints faced by the Design department includes funds needed to have the necessary resources - men, machines, money and materials. It also sometimes works in isolation from the production line, so that it is not hampered by constant feedback and criticism. However, feedback and constructive criticism are also important positive aspects.
REASEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT (R & D)
Need for R & D
Development is the process of making a product (or process), usable and commercially exploitable, perfected by applied research. Applied research is carried out for commercial exploitation. It is an investigation or experimentation with the aim of developing practical applications of the knowledge thus gained. India has, for long, remained a borrower of technology. In the competitive world of today, no company can survive without access to R & D in applicable areas. It is too costly and risky to buy technology for ever. The same holds good for a country, in a more important sense of self-sufficiently and well-being of its people and economy. With the liberalization of Indian economy, and stiff competition in the market place, companies are realizing the value of R & D; at least, major industries are setting up their own R & D departments if they already do not have it).
The Process of Working in R & D
R & D begins with a problem statement. For example, if you want to do R & D work on an electric car, then your problem has to be stated as the development of an electric car. A layman may approach this problem in a disorganized manner. There may be several gaps in the way he tries to develop an electric car, because he may overlook a number of important steps. The scientific approach, on the contrary, is systematic and without gaps. Every step is taken and every details is investigated while formulating the problem.
Literature gathered systematically from technical journals, specialist magazines, books and trade journals and through discussions with experts is an important part of the R & D activity. Sometimes, a hypothesis or assumption is formulated, and by using sampling techniques, a survey is made with a select group of respondents to Support or reject the hypothesis. Based on systematic data collection, a report or thesis is prepared.
Prominent Types of Research
Quantitative Research is the usage of statistical data usually compromised, to support management decision-making, preparing business forecasts, recommending investment patterns, etc. here, the objective of research should be measurement and analysis of variables under different circumstances/parameters.
Applied research is investigation or experimentation with the aim of developing practical applications of the knowledge gained.. Applied research is essential for problem solving in an organization.
Fundamental Research is based on fundamentals; it is theoretical or pure research, not related to business exploitation. Research that goes into the root of the matter as in nuclear research, genetics, biotechnology, etc., fall under this classification.
Empirical Research is experimentation based on observation, which cannot be established with confidence as 100% accurate. What holds good for one set of variables should theoretically hold good for a similar set, is the basis of empirical research.
Laboratory Research is research by experiment and observation under laboratory conditions.
R & D Registration
To be a recognized R & D center, a unit has to register itself with the Department of Science and Technology of the Government of India.. There are a number of benefits extended to such R & D centers. Some of them are listed below:
i. Income tax benefits.
ii. Unrestricted imports of capital goods.
iii. Benefit of 100% of depreciation (write off) on capital goods.
The first and foremost requisite of an R & D center is the setting up of a full-fledged laboratory.. A detailed application has to be sent, stating the area of study, the period of study, etc., and the benefits that will flow from the research to the community and the country (for example, development of an impot substitute item/product).
The application has to give detailed budgets (both capital and revenue) and details of the facility required.. After the department is satisfied of the genuineness of the application, the R & D center is approved and is given a registration number and a validity period.
An R & D cess is collected by the Government of India, to fund R & D projects implemented by various organizations. The cess is collected on import of Design & Drawings, Payment of Technical knowhow fee, Engagement of foreign technicians, etc. The cess is collected through the Reserve Bank of India at the time of approval.
PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT
Product Development is a process of:
i. improving existing products, product lines and product applications.
ii. creating new products, product lines and applications.
Process of Product Development
Product Selection is the first step in product development. This is done by the top management on the recommendations of the Marketing department based on market needs/wants. This is usually selected from a number of alternatives based on techno-economic viability.
The product is the designed and the design is approved for a pilot project to be started.
In a pilot project, the product goes through a trial run where it is tested under laboratory conditions. Real life conditions are simulated or duplicated in the laboratory and the product is subjected to a number of tests of strength, durability, performance, tolerance to various adverse condition, like heat, light, dust, dirt, stress, etc.
Design changes, if indicated by the tests, are made.
Fig. 1 Flow Chart for Product Development
Now a full scale model or prototype is prepared. The model is then exposed to field tests or test marketing. For example, a new soap may be best marketed in a particular geographical area to get customers' reactions or feedback, before it is introduced all over the country.
Field tests are tougher than lab tests and certain drawbacks in design which passed the lad test may show up during the field test. In such a case, it goes back to the drawing board!
Once again the product goes through design changes.
Next the product is evaluated on the basis of costs and benefits. If re-designing and overall costs are too high compared to the benefits in terms of market acceptance and profitability, then the product may have to be dropped, or an alternative solution has to be arrived at so that benefits outweigh costs. The sequence of operations for manufacturing the product is established and we are ready to commence full-scale production.
Periodic updates are made in the design and development of a product until it really stabilizes. Yet another reason for periodic updation is competition. In order to stay ahead of competition, we have to keep updating our product in terms of quality and features/benefits. When there is a technology change in the field, for example, when there are better ways of making the product or when a technology breakthrough takes place in the product itself, we have to take stock of the situation and review the design.
Areas of Application of Design
In the industrial era, design meant design of products. Now design has come to mean a lot more. However, the general concepts described earlier remain the same, with appropriate modifications.
Today, apart from industrial product design, we talk of garment design (garment made of not only cotton or artificial fibers, but also of jute, leather, etc.), fashion design (where it is the fashion/trend that is designed), interior design (making good use of available space and presenting an aesthetic appeal of interiors of homes and offices), curriculum design design of syllabus, course details and course materials), advertisement design, stadium design, organizational logo design, etc.
As a matter of fact, one of the critical factors for the success of large organizations today is Product Development capabilities. In view of the stiff competition, competing organizations are forced to bring forth newer and improved products/services to be acceptable to the market. The number of new and improved and cost-effective and better detergents/detergent powders that have hit the market in the last one year is indicative of the importance of Product Development. It also indicates how swiftly R & D is forced to act and help develop newer and newer products.
CONCLUSION
India has, for long, been considered a country of traders. there has been very little of original design owned by India companies. However, Indians who have gone abroad, are shining well as designers. Our scientists and engineers in NASA, Intel, IBM, and AT&T stand testimony to this fact.
With the economic liberalization, Indian companies and even foreign companies are setting up Design and R & D centers in very many fields in India, right from garment or textile design to graphic design, visual art design and automobile design. For people with a scientific design or research-oriented bent of mind, this offers excellent openings and growth possibilities. Due to dearth of talent, fresh graduates will have a lot of opportunities to join organizations as entry level Design/Research/Development Executives.
RECAPITULATION
- Design forms the basic step of any manufacturing activity.
- The first step involved in designing a product is to make a drawing to the scale of the product.
- Design has to take into account, standards prescribed for the product under design. Changes are incorporated based on reviews and feedback.
- Development is the process of making a product usable and commercially available, perfected by applied research.
- Research and Development begins with problem stating.
- A unit has to register with the Department of Science and Technology., of Government of India, to be a recognized R & D center.
- R & D cess, a fixed percentage, is collected on the import of design and drawings, by the government.
- Product development is a process of improving existing and/or creating new products.
- Product selection, the first step in product development is done by top management, on the recommendations of the Marketing department.
- In a pilot project, the product is tested in the laboratory, where real life conditions are simulated.
